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Short Notes & Cheat Sheets
Read a topic's short notes, memorise its cheat sheet, then attempt its MCQs while it is fresh.
Pharmacology
Autonomic Nervous System
Cholinergic and adrenergic transmission, receptor subtypes, and the agonists and antagonists that act on them.
Notes and cheat sheetCardiovascular Drugs
Antihypertensives, antianginals, heart failure drugs, antiarrhythmics, anticoagulants and lipid-lowering agents.
Notes and cheat sheetCNS Pharmacology
Sedative-hypnotics, antiepileptics, antidepressants, lithium, antipsychotics, antiparkinsonian drugs, opioids and anaesthetics.
Notes and cheat sheetAntimicrobial Agents
Mechanisms, spectra and signature toxicities of antibacterial, anti-TB, antifungal, antiviral, antimalarial and anthelmintic drugs.
Notes and cheat sheetEndocrine Pharmacology
Insulin and oral antidiabetics, thyroid drugs, corticosteroids, sex hormones, bone drugs and pituitary hormones.
Notes and cheat sheetRespiratory and GI Drugs
Asthma and COPD drugs, acid suppression, H. pylori regimens, antiemetics, laxatives, antidiarrhoeals and IBD drugs.
Notes and cheat sheetAutacoids and NSAIDs
Histamine and antihistamines, serotonin and migraine drugs, eicosanoids, NSAIDs, paracetamol, gout and DMARDs.
Notes and cheat sheetChemotherapy of Neoplasms
Cell-cycle specificity, alkylating agents, antimetabolites, natural products, targeted and hormonal therapy, and supportive care.
Notes and cheat sheetPharmaceutics
Dosage Form Design
Preformulation, routes of administration, excipients and how a drug's properties decide its dosage form.
Notes and cheat sheetTablets and Capsules
Granulation, compression, coating, tablet defects, quality tests and hard and soft gelatin capsules.
Notes and cheat sheetDisperse Systems
Suspensions, emulsions and colloids: stability, Stokes' law, HLB, flocculation and emulsion instability.
Notes and cheat sheetSterile Products
Parenterals, pyrogens, isotonicity, water for injection, ophthalmic products and sterility testing.
Notes and cheat sheetRheology and Micromeritics
Newtonian and non-Newtonian flow, thixotropy, viscometers, particle size methods, powder flow and porosity.
Notes and cheat sheetPackaging and Stability
Degradation pathways, reaction kinetics, shelf life, ICH stability conditions and packaging materials.
Notes and cheat sheetMedicinal Chemistry
Structure Activity Relationship
How structural changes alter activity: the classic SAR of penicillins, sulfonamides, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, catecholamines, opioids and quinolones.
Notes and cheat sheetDrug Metabolism Chemistry
Phase I and phase II reactions, the CYP450 enzymes, polymorphisms, enzyme induction and inhibition, and toxic metabolites.
Notes and cheat sheetProdrugs and Bioisosterism
Why prodrugs are made, carrier-linked and bioprecursor prodrugs, mutual prodrugs, soft drugs, and classical and non-classical bioisosteres.
Notes and cheat sheetDrug Design Principles
The discovery pipeline, lead compounds, drug–receptor bonding, lead optimisation, computer-aided design and chiral switches.
Notes and cheat sheetPharmaceutical Chemistry
Organic Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Reaction mechanisms, aromaticity, acidity and basicity, and the heterocycles found in common drugs.
Notes and cheat sheetInorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Antacids, electrolytes and ORS, antimicrobial inorganics, dental agents, haematinics, radiopharmaceuticals and limit tests.
Notes and cheat sheetStereochemistry of Drugs
Chirality, enantiomers and diastereomers, R/S and D/L naming, geometric isomers and why single enantiomers matter clinically.
Notes and cheat sheetFunctional Group Analysis
Qualitative tests for functional groups, quantitative functional-group assays and characteristic IR absorption bands.
Notes and cheat sheetPharmacognosy
Alkaloids
Definition and types of alkaloids, classification by ring system with source plants, general precipitating reagents and special colour tests.
Notes and cheat sheetGlycosides
Glycoside structure and linkages, and the cardiac, anthraquinone, saponin, cyanogenetic, flavonoid and coumarin classes with their tests.
Notes and cheat sheetVolatile Oils and Resins
Volatile oil chemistry, where plants store them, extraction methods, important oils, and resins, oleoresins and balsams.
Notes and cheat sheetTannins and Carbohydrate Drugs
Hydrolysable and condensed tannins with their tests, and sugars, starches, gums, mucilages and seaweed polysaccharides used in pharmacy.
Notes and cheat sheetCrude Drug Evaluation
Organoleptic, microscopic, physical, chemical and biological evaluation of crude drugs, quantitative microscopy and adulteration.
Notes and cheat sheetClinical Pharmacy
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
Which drugs need TDM, target ranges, sampling times, and how to interpret a level in context.
Notes and cheat sheetDrug Interactions
Pharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions, the classic dangerous pairs, and food–drug interactions.
Notes and cheat sheetAdverse Drug Reactions
ADR definitions, the Rawlins–Thompson and hypersensitivity classifications, causality and severity assessment, risk factors and reporting.
Notes and cheat sheetTherapeutics of Infectious Disease
Antibiotic principles and stewardship, PK/PD dosing, and first-line treatment of common infections including XDR typhoid in Pakistan.
Notes and cheat sheetCardiovascular Therapeutics
Treating hypertension, acute coronary syndrome, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, dyslipidaemia and venous thromboembolism.
Notes and cheat sheetDiabetes and Endocrine Therapeutics
Diagnosing and treating diabetes, hypoglycaemia, DKA, sick-day and Ramadan advice, and managing thyroid and adrenal disorders.
Notes and cheat sheetHospital Pharmacy
Drug Distribution Systems
Floor stock, individual prescription, unit dose and automated systems, controlled drugs on wards, and preventing medication errors.
Notes and cheat sheetHospital Formulary and P&T Committee
What a formulary is, open and closed formularies, the Pharmacy and Therapeutics Committee's members and functions, and essential medicines lists.
Notes and cheat sheetSterile Compounding and IV Admixtures
Aseptic technique, cleanrooms and laminar-flow cabinets, TPN, IV incompatibilities, cytotoxic handling and infusion calculations.
Notes and cheat sheetInventory and Purchasing
ABC and VED analysis, EOQ, reorder level and safety stock, FEFO stock rotation, tendering and storage conditions.
Notes and cheat sheetCommunity Pharmacy
Patient Counselling
The counselling process, the three prime questions, teach-back, device technique and key counselling points for common medicines.
Notes and cheat sheetPrescription Handling and Dispensing
Parts of a prescription, Latin abbreviations, safe writing of doses, the dispensing process, labelling and paediatric dose rules.
Notes and cheat sheetOTC and Self Medication
Responsible self-medication, questioning with WWHAM and ASMETHOD, red flags for referral, and OTC treatment of common minor ailments.
Notes and cheat sheetPharmaceutical Analysis
Titrimetric Analysis
Acid–base, non-aqueous, redox, precipitation, complexometric and diazotisation titrations, with indicators, standards and back titration.
Notes and cheat sheetSpectroscopy
The electromagnetic spectrum, Beer–Lambert law, UV–visible, IR, fluorescence, atomic absorption, NMR and mass spectrometry.
Notes and cheat sheetChromatography
Separation principles, TLC and Rf, HPLC modes and detectors, system suitability, the van Deemter equation and gas chromatography.
Notes and cheat sheetPharmacopoeial Assays
Pharmacopoeias and monographs, content limits, dissolution and uniformity tests, microbiological and biological assays, and classic drug assays.
Notes and cheat sheetValidation of Analytical Methods
ICH Q2 validation parameters, typical acceptance criteria, which parameters each test type needs, and instrument qualification.
Notes and cheat sheetMicrobiology
Sterilization
Sterilisation versus disinfection, heat, filtration, radiation and gas methods, biological indicators, D and Z values, disinfectants and the Spaulding classification.
Notes and cheat sheetAntimicrobial Resistance
Resistance mechanisms, how resistance genes spread, key resistant organisms, susceptibility testing, WHO AWaRe groups and the situation in Pakistan.
Notes and cheat sheetMicrobial Culture and Identification
Gram and acid-fast staining, culture media, haemolysis patterns, the bacterial growth curve, oxygen requirements and key biochemical tests.
Notes and cheat sheetImmunology and Vaccines
Innate and adaptive immunity, antibody classes, types of immunity, vaccine types, the Pakistan EPI schedule and the cold chain.
Notes and cheat sheetBiochemistry
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Glycolysis, the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the HMP shunt and related disorders.
Notes and cheat sheetEnzymes
Enzyme classes, Michaelis–Menten and Lineweaver–Burk kinetics, types of inhibition, cofactors, regulation, isoenzymes and diagnostic enzymes.
Notes and cheat sheetLipid and Protein Metabolism
Fatty acid oxidation and synthesis, ketone bodies, cholesterol and lipoproteins, amino acid metabolism, the urea cycle and inborn errors.
Notes and cheat sheetVitamins and Minerals
Fat- and water-soluble vitamins with their functions, deficiency diseases and toxicity, plus the key minerals and trace elements.
Notes and cheat sheetClinical Biochemistry
Reference ranges, acid–base disorders and the anion gap, liver, kidney and cardiac function tests, and other common laboratory markers.
Notes and cheat sheetPharmacokinetics
Absorption and Bioavailability
Absorption mechanisms, the pH-partition theory, dissolution, first-pass metabolism, bioavailability calculations and the BCS.
Notes and cheat sheetClearance and Half Life
Clearance, half-life and the elimination constant, first- and zero-order kinetics, steady state, and hepatic and renal clearance.
Notes and cheat sheetDistribution and Protein Binding
Volume of distribution, loading doses, barriers to distribution, plasma protein binding and displacement, and compartment models.
Notes and cheat sheetDosage Regimen Calculations
Loading and maintenance doses, infusions, accumulation, dosing in renal impairment and obesity, salt factors and worked examples.
Notes and cheat sheetBioequivalence Studies
Pharmaceutical and therapeutic equivalence, crossover study design, AUC and Cmax acceptance limits, biowaivers and dissolution similarity.
Notes and cheat sheetToxicology
Antidotes
Specific antidotes for common poisonings, how antidotes work, and important cautions in their use.
Notes and cheat sheetHeavy Metal Poisoning
Lead, mercury, arsenic, iron and other metal poisonings: sources, features, the stages of iron poisoning, and choosing a chelator.
Notes and cheat sheetPesticide and Household Poisoning
Organophosphates, aluminium phosphide, paraquat and rodenticides, plus kerosene, corrosives, carbon monoxide, methanol and snake bite.
Notes and cheat sheetDrug Overdose Management
Initial assessment, toxidromes, decontamination, enhanced elimination and the management of paracetamol, salicylate, TCA and other overdoses.
Notes and cheat sheetForensic Toxicology
How drugs and poisons are detected and interpreted for legal purposes: specimens, chain of custody, screening, confirmation and post-mortem pitfalls.
Notes and cheat sheetNarcotics and Psychotropic Substances
Drugs of abuse seen in Pakistan, their sources, presumptive colour tests, metabolites and the laws and conventions that control them.
Notes and cheat sheetIndustrial Pharmacy
Good Manufacturing Practice
What GMP covers: personnel, premises and clean areas, equipment, documentation and data integrity, production controls, complaints and recalls.
Notes and cheat sheetProcess Validation
Definition and lifecycle stages of process validation, types of validation, equipment qualification, QbD and risk tools, and cleaning validation.
Notes and cheat sheetQuality Control and Quality Assurance
QA versus QC, sampling, OOS investigations, batch release, quality tools such as PDCA, control charts and fishbone diagrams, and product quality review.
Notes and cheat sheetScale Up and Technology Transfer
Moving from laboratory to pilot to commercial scale, problems at each unit operation, SUPAC change levels and the technology transfer process.
Notes and cheat sheetRegulatory Affairs
Drug Registration in Pakistan
Who registers drugs in Pakistan, the CTD dossier, what is assessed, validity and renewal, and related registrations for devices and health products.
Notes and cheat sheetPricing and Licensing
Drug pricing under DRAP's pricing policy, essential and non-essential medicines, manufacturing licences and provincial sale licences.
Notes and cheat sheetImport and Export Control
Rules for importing finished drugs and raw materials, controlled substances, and the certificates used for exporting medicines.
Notes and cheat sheetInternational Regulatory Bodies
ICH, WHO, PIC/S and the major national regulators: what each does and the guideline codes DRAP officer tests ask about.
Notes and cheat sheetMedical Devices and Health Products
How Pakistan regulates medical devices, diagnostics, nutraceuticals and alternative medicines under DRAP's rules.
Notes and cheat sheetDrug Laws
Drugs Act 1976
Scope of the Drugs Act 1976, the boards and officers it creates, the categories of defective drugs, inspectors' powers and Drug Courts.
Notes and cheat sheetDRAP Act 2012
Why DRAP was created after the 18th Amendment, what it regulates, its structure and its main functions.
Notes and cheat sheetPharmacy Act 1967
The Pharmacy Council of Pakistan and provincial councils, registers of pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, education standards and offences.
Notes and cheat sheetDrug Rules and Schedules
The main federal rules under the Drugs Act, provincial sale rules, labelling requirements, and controlled and prescription-only drugs.
Notes and cheat sheetPharmacist Ethics and Conduct
Core ethical principles, the pharmacist's professional duties, confidentiality and consent, and common ethical dilemmas in practice.
Notes and cheat sheetAnatomy
Musculoskeletal System
Bones and their types, bone cells and ossification, joints, the vertebral column, muscle types and muscle contraction.
Notes and cheat sheetNervous System Anatomy
Divisions of the nervous system, brain regions and their functions, meninges and CSF, the spinal cord, cranial nerves, neurons and glia.
Notes and cheat sheetVisceral Anatomy
Heart, lungs, digestive tract, liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys and retroperitoneal organs: key anatomical facts.
Notes and cheat sheetPhysiology
Cardiovascular Physiology
The conduction system and ECG, cardiac output and its determinants, blood pressure regulation, heart sounds, cardiac action potentials and RAAS.
Notes and cheat sheetRenal Physiology
Glomerular filtration, what each nephron segment does, clearance measurements, hormonal control of water and salt, and the kidney's endocrine roles.
Notes and cheat sheetRespiratory Physiology
Breathing mechanics and surfactant, lung volumes and spirometry, gas exchange, oxygen and carbon dioxide transport, and control of breathing.
Notes and cheat sheetEndocrine Physiology
Hormone classes and receptors, the hypothalamic–pituitary axes, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pancreatic hormones, and classic endocrine disorders.
Notes and cheat sheetNeurophysiology
Resting and action potentials, nerve fibre types, synaptic transmission and neurotransmitters, reflexes, motor lesions and sleep.
Notes and cheat sheetPathology
Inflammation and Repair
Acute and chronic inflammation, leukocyte recruitment, chemical mediators, granulomas, regeneration and fibrosis, and wound healing.
Notes and cheat sheetNeoplasia
Benign versus malignant tumours, nomenclature, dysplasia and metaplasia, grading and staging, spread, oncogenes and tumour suppressors, carcinogens and tumour markers.
Notes and cheat sheetHaematological Disorders
Anaemias by red cell size, thalassaemia and haemolytic anaemias, bleeding disorders and clotting tests, leukaemias, lymphomas and myeloma.
Notes and cheat sheetInfectious Disease Pathology
Tuberculosis, viral hepatitis, typhoid, malaria, dengue, HIV and cholera, with toxins and virulence factors.
Notes and cheat sheetPublic Health
Pharmacovigilance
Definition and methods of pharmacovigilance, signals, individual case reports, the WHO programme, DRAP's role and famous drug withdrawals.
Notes and cheat sheetEpidemiology and Disease Control
Measures of disease frequency, the chain of infection, levels of prevention, screening test performance, surveillance and eradication.
Notes and cheat sheetNational Health Programmes of Pakistan
EPI, polio eradication, the Lady Health Worker programme, TB, malaria, HIV and hepatitis programmes, MNCH, nutrition and the Sehat Card.
Notes and cheat sheetRational Drug Use
The WHO definition, common irrational practices, WHO prescribing and patient care indicators, strategies to improve use, and good prescribing steps.
Notes and cheat sheetResearch Methodology
Biostatistics
Types of data, averages and spread, the normal distribution, hypothesis testing and errors, choosing a statistical test, and risk measures such as NNT.
Notes and cheat sheetStudy Design
Observational and experimental designs, the hierarchy of evidence, randomisation and blinding, bias and confounding, causation criteria and research ethics.
Notes and cheat sheetClinical Trial Phases
Preclinical work, phases 0 to IV with their aims and sizes, GCP roles, safety reporting and trial approval in Pakistan.
Notes and cheat sheet